The study attempts to explore the status of women in early medieval northern India, examining various aspects of their lives, including marriage, education, widowhood, and social roles. It begins by contextualising Indian historical writings, which were initially influenced by colonial perspectives and later challenged by Indian historians, particularly regarding women’s status in ancient texts. The study examines the evolving attitudes towards women, reflecting both idealised portrayals and historical complexities. Examining the institution of marriage, the study discusses social norms and women’s agency in selecting spouses, drawing from ancient texts and inscriptions. It explores the educational opportunities available to women in early medieval India, noting a decline during the Mahājanapada era but stressing instances of educated women excelling in various fields. The study also addresses the challenges faced by widows, particularly regarding remarriage and social expectations of asceticism. It examines the practice of Sati, providing historical accounts and literary references to illustrate its prevalence and cultural significance during the period. The study also discusses the roles of temple dancers, courtesans, and concubines in early medieval society.
- Romila Thapar, The Past as Present, Aleph Book Company, New Delhi, 2014, p. 263.
- Padmanabh S. Jaini, Gender and Salvation, Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi, 1992, p. 7; Romila Thapar, The Penguin History of Early India, p. 16
- Romila Thapar, The Past as Present, p. 265.
- R.C. Dutt, A History of Civilization in Ancient India, Cosmo Publication, Delhi, 1972, pp. 168-69; Romila Thapar, The Past as Present, p. 265.
- Kumkum Roy, „Introduction‟, in Kumkum Roy, ed., Women in Early Indian Societies, Manohar, New Delhi, 2011, p. 2.
- I.B. Horner, Women Under Primitive Buddhism: Laywomen and Almswomen, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1975; R.M. Das, Women in Manu: And his Seven Commentators, Kanchana Publication, Varanasi, 1953
- Manu Smriti with six commentaries, Bombay, 1886, V, p. 148
- Agrawal, V.S., India as known to Panini, Allahabad, 1963, 87, 88.
- Ibid., pp. 100
- Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣada, VI, 4, 17.
- Taittīriya Saṁhitā, VI, 1, 6.5, cited by Damodar Satvalekar, Kṛṣṇayajurvediya Taittīriya Saṁhitā a, Swadhyaya Mandal, Pardi, 1983, p. 254.
- Maitrāyaṇi Saṁhitā, III, 7.3, cited by Damodar Satvalekar, Yajurvedīya Maitrāyaṇi Saṁhitā, Swadhyaya Mandal, Pardi, 1984, pp. 259–60.
- Usha Sharma and B.M. Sharma, Women Education in Ancient and Medieval India, Commonwealth Publication, New Delhi, 1995, p. 3.
- A.S. Altekar, The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization, p. 16.
- K.S. I. 3, 12 (Knowledge of Sastras by Princesses etc.).
- Kavyamimansa, p. 53.
- In Pala inscription, it has been described that a Brahmana vatesvara Sarmana used to read Mahabharata to the queen. J.A.S.B., vol. IXIX, p. 67, Yr. 1909.
- HCCTH, p. 121, HCCTH, pp. 154-155;’ HCK Canto 5, p. 30, 31; HCCTH, p. 254.
- Beal, Life of Yian-Chwang, p. 176
- Ratnavali, p. 305.
- HMHI, I, p. 97, PO, vol. XVI, p. 106
- Satishchandra, op.cit., p. 47-48.
- Uma Chakravarti, ‘Gender, Caste and Labour: The Ideological and Material Structure of Widowhood’, in Martha Alter Chen ed., Widows in India: Socia Neglect and Public Action, Sage Publications, New Delhi, 1998, p. 64.
- A.S. Altekar, The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization, p. 152.
- Ibid., p. 153.
- Manu, V, 157, tr. by Burnell and Hopkins, pp. 131–2
- Manu, V, 162, in ibid., p. 132
- In the mantras on marriage (such) a commission is never mentioned, and the second marriage of a widow is not spoken of in the rule of marriage. Manu, IX, 65, in ibid., p. 255
- Nārada, XII, 28, Eng. tr. by Julius Jolly, 1981, p. 83.
- A.S. Altekar, The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization, p. 155.
- Saroj Gulati, Women and Society, p. 116.
- Uma Chakravarti, ‘Gender, Caste and Labour: The Ideological and Material Structure of Widowhood’, in Martha Alter Chen ed., Widows in India: Socia Neglect and Public Action, p. 73.
- Hira Lal, ‘The Sirpur Stone Inscription of the Time of Mahasivagupta’, EI, vol. XI, p. 196.
- Harihar Vittal Trivedi, Inscriptions of Paramār Chamdellas, Chachchapaghālas and Two Minor Dynasties, CII, vol. VII, Part II, 1978, p. 231–2. The Vasantagadh stone inscription also confirmed Manu’s theory of tutelage of women under a male member after becoming a widow; Lāhiṇī, even though holding the property rights of her husband, was living under the protection of her brother.
- Vṛddha-Hārīta, XI, 205–10, cited by P.V. Kane, History of Dharmaśāstra, vol. II, part-I, p. 584.
- Vikramāṅkadevacarita of Bilhaṇa, Hindi tr. by Gajanan Shastri, p. 42.
- Nav. X, v. 17, Hindi tr. by Jitendra Chandra, p. 147.
- Aparna Chattopadhyaya, ‘Position of Widows in Early Medieval India in the Light of the Kathā-sarit-sāgar’, JOI, vol. 24, p. 401
